Criminal Behavior Biosocial Theories of Criminal Causation Paper

 

 

Lecture Notes

Welcome to Lesson 4! In this lesson we are going to explore sociologists’ views on crime. We have a lot of ground to cover in this lesson, so let’s get started! Early sociologist Emile Durkheim believed that crime is a normal part of all societies and law a symbol of social solidarity. In other words, law-abiding citizens unite against the wrongdoers. Those who break laws violate the collective consciousness of “right and wrong” as determined by the society in which the criminals reside. Durkheim further argues that crime is more than just a necessary evil. He suggests that a certain amount of crime is necessary for the good of society. Hence, crime, instead of being considered a complete negative, can and does occasionally contribute to the positive development of society. As you read the chapters devoted to the sociological theories, consider whether you agree or disagree with Durkheim’s seemingly counterintuitive ideas.

Sociological Theories

Sociological theorists examine both interrelationships among social institutions and interactions between and among social institutions, groups, and individuals. Sociologists believe that these relations provide a basis for studying criminal behavior. Group dynamics form the causal nexus from which crimes develop. Social structure and its level of organization or disorganization are also factors that contribute to crime. Although examples of a person committing a specific crime are impossible to predict, sociologists believe they can make fairly accurate estimates by looking at social institutions and all these relationships (Schmalleger, 2015).

Social Structure Theories

According to the broad umbrella of this theory, social disorganization, poverty, lack of education and/or success, and other negative factors contribute to criminal behavior. Alienation and weak social control may also cause a person to commit crimes. Deviant subcultures whose values differ from conventional society proliferate and give rise to crime. The social structure theories can be broken down into social disorganization, the strain theories, and culture conflict. Your textbook provides you with a concise chart that summarizes each of these theories.

The social disorganization theory views crime as caused by social change, the uneven development of culture, disharmony, conflict, and lack of consensus. Issues such as residential stability, consistent social values and norms, family stability, and poverty within an area contribute to the level of crime. These failed communities are poverty-stricken, desolate, dirty, and the levels of crime are higher. The Chicago School of Criminology suggests that social disorganization leads to social pathology.

Environmental criminology is a perspective that emphasizes the importance of a geographic location and its connection to criminal behavior. Some theorists contend that the physical deterioration of an area is conducive to crime. The broken window theory, a sub-theory of environmental criminology, states that crime, vandalism, and delinquency all increase when an area slips into decline. Litter, abandoned cars, graffiti, broken street lights, and trash give the appearance that residents do not care what happens. As a result, crime is higher. Broken window theorists go on to argue that desolate neighborhoods fail to provide residents a defensive space. To combat this lack of defensive space, the concept of crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) evolved. Some cities use CPTED in their architectural review and building departments. They feature building designs and improvements that enhance defensible space and natural surveillance. Open yards, the elimination of dead end streets and alleys, and enhanced lighting are all important components of this concept

Classic Strain Theory

In a nutshell, the classic strain theory claims that individuals who cannot reach socially acceptable goals using lawful means accomplish their objectives by engaging in delinquent behavior. Expanding on the work of Emile Durkheim, Robert Merton developed a paradigm of crime based on the theory of anomie, which has been defined as a state wherein norms are unclear or lacking. This term derives from the French word for lawlessness. In times of rapid societal change, individuals can lose their ability to define acceptable behaviors. Social isolation, loneliness, and a loss of identity result in a state of anomie, or normlessness. This state of anomie allows crime to flourish.

Anomie exists on a societal level when rapid changes take place. During the 1960s social relationships changed. Beginning in the 1980s rapid advances in technology occurred, changing the ways in which we communicate and do business. The events of 9/11 also changed the ways in which the United States conducts business on a personal, institutional, and national level. When former norms break down or totally disintegrate, the individual becomes unsure which behaviors are acceptable.

General Strain Theory In 1992, Robert Agnew reformulated Merton’s classic strain theory. He postulated that lawbreaking is a coping mechanism for dealing with socioemotional problems. Agnew contends that the strains most likely to cause crime in Western societies include child abuse and neglect, chronic unemployment, homelessness, various forms of discrimination, and failure to achieve goals. This list is not exhaustive, but it gives you an idea of the many strains society places on all of us. Consult your textbook for the full list.

Culture Conflict Theory

Proponents of this theory argue that crime can be traced to a clash of values between groups who are socialized differently. Conventional society, for example, often clashes with the deviant subcultures it encounters. Members of subcultures are socialized by the subculture to which they belong, and they pledge their allegiance to the subculture rather than the larger surrounding culture. Keep in mind when analyzing this theory that deviant subcultures may or may not be lawbreakers.

Social Process Theories

The social process theories assert that criminal behavior is learned through interaction and socialization with others as a result of group membership. The social development theory includes social process as well as other theories. These theories focus on the individual rates of offending based on the transitions people go through in their life cycles. This perspective believes that development begins at birth and occurs within a social context. Note that the social development theory is also referred to as the life course theory.

Social Learning Theory

The social learning theory holds that all behavior, including criminal behavior, is learned from others. Crime is not viewed as different from any other behavior. Behavior is learned from observation that is not necessarily formally taught. Young people emulate their elders and those they see often. Newly inducted gang members, for example, learn from seasoned members. They start out as messengers and lookouts and progress to “higher” positions.

Social Control Theory

The social control theory focuses on the strength of the bond people share with other individuals and the institutions around them. These relationships help individuals form values and behaviors. Families, churches, schools, peer groups, and neighborhoods are important sources of social control. This theory asks why some people break rules rather than follow them. Conventional wisdom suggests that juveniles who disengage from school and their families may find it easy to link up with criminal cohorts who press their delinquent values and behaviors on them.

Labeling Theory

The labeling theory, also called the social reaction theory, contends that those labeled as criminals will continue to be criminals since they adopt the label society has placed on them. This theory is often used to explain repeat and chronic offenders. To put this theory in perspective, think of children who are told by parents and teachers that they can pursue any career they desire. Then think of children whose parents and teachers discourage or circumscribe their growth. Odds are good both sets of children will live up to the expectations (or lack thereof) that the adults in their lives have laid out for them.

Reintegrative shaming is a form of shaming imposed by the criminal justice system. Proponents claim this type of shaming strengthens the moral bonds between the offender and society. Shaming disapproves of the deviant act and reintegration is the forgiveness and acceptance of an offender back into a given community. Reintegrative shaming condemns the act itself, but not the actor, with the goal being to pull the offender back into society rather than push him or her further into the criminal subculture. Shame the sin but not the sinner type of logic applies.

Stigmatic shaming, on the other hand, disapproves of both the offender and the criminal act. It is the antithesis of reintegrative shaming. Its critics claim stigmatizing destroys the bonds between the offender and society. A judge ordering an offender to stand on a busy street corner while holding up a sign that says something along the lines of “I drove under the influence of alcohol with my children in the car” is an example of stigmatic shaming. Consider what benefits, if any, you believe might result from this type of punishment. You can see how stigmatic shaming plays into the idea that people become what others label them.

Social Development Perspectives

The social development perspectives take an integrated approach to crime causation, simultaneously examining the psychological, biological, familial, interpersonal, cultural, societal, and ecological components that make up and affect the individual. These theorists posit that human development takes place mostly within a social context, but whereas social process theorists believe that crime is behavior learned strictly through social interactions, social development theorists cast a more encompassing net.

Note that the social learning theory places primary emphasis on the role of communication and socialization with regard to criminal behavior, whereas the social control theoryemphasizes the strength of the bonds individuals share with others and the institutions that surround them. Criminal behavior, the same as all other behavior, is learned from others. Those others may be our parents, our peers, or others. Edwin Sutherland suggested that criminality is learned through a process he labeled “differential association.” Those persons who commit crimes learn from others who communicate criminal values and encourage the commission of criminal acts.

The social theories are sometimes interrelated and sometimes support each other. The social disorganization concept, for example, can exist in harmony with the differential learning theory. While the sociological theories have differences, they are all based on human interaction. We will explore several more sociological theories in Lesson 5. Your FBI reading assignment for this lesson focuses on Joseph Franklin, a white supremacist and serial killer. You should find it interesting.